The models For Organizational Diagnosis

Organizations undertake a diagnosis of their operation for purposes of checking the effectiveness and efficiency of their work processes. It is because they owe it to their stakeholders, stockholders and other interest groups to assure that their needs and expectations are met. When an organization is regularly checked and diagnosed, problems can be pinpointed and resolved and/or anticipated and avoided. Diagnosis and evaluation of the operation and management of an organization can pave the way for initiatives and innovations towards change and the betterment of the company.The different types of organizational diagnostic models are: Force Field Analysis: This model is a simple method designed by Kurt Lewin in 1951. It takes into consideration the two major forces affecting an organization: the restraining forces that are borne from the limitations of the company; and, the driving forces that are borne out of the effective and positive characteristics of the organization. In applyin g this diagnostic method, the desired balance in enhancing the driving forces to counter the restraining forces will be achieved.Leavitt’s Model This diagnostic tool model desgined by H. J. Leavitt in 1967 looks into the contributing variables in an organization. These variables are the tasks performed; the structure designed; the technology implemented and the human resources available.What this model checks are the changes in any and each of the variables and how they affect each other. In diagnosing an organization using this will pinpoint effectiveness of change that will benefit all the variables. Likert System Analysis R.Likert designed a diagnosis model in 1967 that addresses the motivation; communication; interaction; decision making; goal setting; control and performance aspects of an organization. These aspects of an organization are reflected in four different management systems such are the exploitative-authoritative type; the benevolent-authoritative type; the co nsultative type; and the participative group type. This model uses the questionnaire tool to assess an across the board opinion among the employees, thus, a true consensus can be derived at and better analyzed as the responses are graphed and plotted to see trends and transitions.Open Systems Theory Organizations are deemed to be a social entity and the open systems theory greatly considers the feedback from its environment and outside factors. This diagnostic model considers inputs; throughputs; outputs and renewed inputs in and out of the organization to achieve the desired dynamics towards efficiency. In diagnosing through the open systems theory, the organization has a wider leverage to really see the finer details of its function in the inside and in the outside that will lead to a more comprehensive identification of more factors towards change.Weisbord’s Six-Box Model This model as designed in 1976 by Weisbord outlines the categories in an organization that must be dia gnosed: its purposes; structures; relationships; leadership; rewards and helpful mechanisms. Everything that work and play around those categories must be identified and congruently be evaluated towards initiated and innovative, appropriate change. This will identify the â€Å"what is† aspect of the categories and then arrive at â€Å"what should be†. In applying this model, an organization can profoundly dissect its functions thru the very pinpointed questions to be asked.The Congruence Model for Organization Analysis This model is a dynamic combination of the principle of the Open Systems Theory; the Leavitt System Analysis and the Weisbord Six-Box Model. Nadler-Tushman developed this analytical method with the assumption that organizations are dynamic entities operating within a wider environment outside of its confines and that there are behaviors among its employees as individual and groups that transpire and interact and transact.This model is remarkable because it zeroes-in into the aspects of the functions in the organization in terms of whether they fit or they do not fit. It is a model that analyzes relevance and congruence in the interaction of the functions. McKinsey 7S Framework Within the framework of an organization as what the McKinsey Consultants identified in 1981 are the â€Å"7-S† that interact: style; staff; systems; strategy; structure; skills; shared values. These variables are illustrated as cells and molecules which makes them interdependent with each other.The framework therefore rationalizes that to achieve efficiency in an organization, all of those variables must be simultaneously, equally efficient. Any change on any of the variable must correlate with a change in the others. The benefit of using this model is that any initiatives towards change will be reflected in each and every variable of the organization and not just on only one. Tichy’s Technical Political Cultural (TPC) Framework This is a model that further analyzes the environment an organization is in, together with its history.It was designed in 1983. In this diagnosis, the cultural, political and technical dynamics of the organization are identified. The merit of this model is that it considers diagnosing to be very specific about every â€Å"strand† of the organization’s political, cultural and technical dynamics that they should be aligned, managed congruently for the organization to be efficient. High-Performance Programming This diagnostic model adopted the Likert System Analysis to work on the four levels in the organization.Level 1 is identified as the reactive level. The responsive level is the 2nd level. The 3rd level is the proactive level and the 4th is the high-performance level. It was in 1984 that Nelson and Burns designed this model to enable organizations to plan the right interventions towards the necessary transformation. Utilizing this model will enable an organization to truly empower e very individual in its employ that will lead to growth and development. Diagnosing Individual and Group BehaviorThis model specifically focuses on the individual behavior of employees in the organization. M. I. Harrison used in1987 the principles of the Open Systems theory in designing this model. This model takes into account the variable transpiring on the organizational level; the variables on the group level and the variables on the individual level. The distinctive premise of this model that is remarkable is that it considers the quality work life of employees. The Burke-Litwin Model of Organizational Performance & ChangeBurke-Litwin developed this diagnostic model in 1990, thus this is more modern method. This diagnosis process covers the 12 theoretical variables; the consideration of the variable effect of the climate and culture of an organization; the distinction between transactional and transformational dynamics of the organization; and, the specification of the nature an d direction of the effect of the variables. This diagnosis model is the most comprehensive method that will truly define an organization. A. T. &T. (merged with BellSouth Corporation)Going two notches higher because of its year 2008 revenue performance at US$124 billion –A. T. &T. ranked No. 8 amongst Fortune top 500 global companies. This is higher by 4. 3% from its 2007 revenue earnings. 2008 Profits is US$12 billion. Based in Dallas, Texas, A. T. &T. merged with BellSouth in the year 2006. At close of the last trading hour of the last trading day for the week, April 24, 2009 positioned A. T. &T. stock at US$. 25. 22 per share. At more than 100 years of corporate existence, A. T. &T.is the world’s largest communications holding company with most advanced, most innovative, most comprehensive telecommunication services from telephones, to internet, to multimedia services, to entertainment solutions meeting individual to multinational business needs of its 77 million cu stomers.Its research and development laboratories are the most advanced facilities in modern day technology. The leadership it has etched in telecommunication is due to the groundbreaking initiatives in innovations and inventions. Its technological advancements have merited seven Nobel Prizes and thousands of patents all over the world.A. T. &T. sustains its corporate governance by solidifying six strategic focus areas: through their commitments to the betterment of communities; through their meritorious investment in people; through their leadership with integrity, ethics and responsibility; through their environmental concerns for sustainable protection; through their efficient networking with people, businesses and customers; and through their consistently innovating technology. A. T. &T. has more than 300,000 employees worldwide. The career and work environment that the company offers its employees is holistic and comprehensive.Employees have a track opportunity to grow. They ar e made to be involved with the company’s advocacies. They receive above industry standard benefits and privileges. They are continually educated and trained. They dwell within the spirit of true teamwork and concern like a family.Due to the comprehensive global operation and services, the Burke-Litwin diagnostic model will dynamically ensure that continuity and sustainability of the excellence position and prestige that A. T. &T. pursues in the industry. The Burke-Litwin model has the tools and mechanics to analyze the very wide external environment of A.T&T.The many executive positions in the company together with its thousands of employees mandate a more astute conduct of interrelationship behavior plus a unifying culture, a conducive work climate and the alignment of skills, job and performance matching.The mission and strategy of the company together with its management practices can be very well checked by this model, together with the structure of the functions and the system of policies. A complex and dynamic A. T&T. will thrive further and better if they check and balance their organization with the Burke-Litwin model.References:Falletta, S.V., Ed.D.,   â€Å"Organizational Diagnostic Models:   A Review & Synthesis†. 2005. http://www.leadersphere.com/img/Orgmodels.pdf. â€Å"Fortune 500 of 2009† Fortune Magazine. CNNMone.com. http://www.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2009/full_list/. A.T.&T. Corporate Profile http://www.att.com/gen/investor-relations?pid=5711.

Analysis Of A Christmas Carol Essay

Scrooge doesn’t realise but in being disrespectful to the gentlemen, he is disrespecting God. Because by refusing to share and not making good use of his wealth he is not following the 10 commandments. The third is rudeness. One of Scrooge’s traits is his rudeness towards others in society. One major example is when he is introduced to the carol singer. As he is a miserable person who, probably, detests having to move too fast normally, suddenly to do this obviously shows how much effort is involved to try and scare this young pauper. Plus, it can be said throughout the era of the Victorians, carol singing and other social things of a similar meaning could normally be linked to biblical stories. So in hindsight it could be blasphemy (yet not as a major incident). Plus, it’s just basic rudeness as it states with Scrooge’s manner†¦ â€Å"With an ill will Scrooge†¦ † It means that he is ill mannered and will show no mercy no matter the pain he has caused or the consequences. The final factor in the statement is greed. Scrooge portrays this throughout the story very clearly but there is a plain yet critical bit at the beginning where it involves Belle (his love not to be). â€Å"I believe that you would choose a dowerless girl†¦ I do; and I release you†¦ † Well this single quote portrays a vast amount of greed from Scrooge. For instance it mentions dowerless girl. Now dowerless means a sort of inheritance yet it would be given to Scrooge instead which would make him wealthy without having to actually work and still earn money. However, Belle is not rich nor wealthy (with money but with other factors of her personality) which Scrooge does not find ‘attractive’ as this basically entitles that he’s going to have to work and provide for his ‘family’. So with this incident that has compelled these two, Belle, obviously hurt and tearful, decides that it’s best to halt the relationship and walk away, no matter what the consequences. Scrooge remembers his sister with few, yet fond, memories. â€Å"Always a delicate creature, whom a breath might have withered†¦ but she had a large heart. † Although he didn’t spend much time with her (because his father sent him to boarding school) he loved his sister very much and had quite a close relationship with her. However this does not reflect in how he treats his nephew. ‘ â€Å"She died a woman,† said the ghost, â€Å"and had, as I think, children. † â€Å"One child,† Scrooge returned. â€Å"True,† said the ghost. â€Å"Your nephew! † Scrooge seemed uneasy in his mind, and answered briefly, â€Å"Yes. † After the visits of the three spirits, Scrooge starts to recognise the similarities between his late sister, Fan and her son Fred and therefore starts to treat him with respect. After all Fred is the only family Scrooge has. â€Å"They were not a handsome family; they were not well dressed; their shoes were far from being waterproof; their clothes were scanty†¦ But they were happy, grateful, pleased with one another, and contented with the time. † So, with this, it is apparent towards us, the readers, which even though he’s greeted with this repulsive family embedded with poverty, there is still a glimmer of hope for this enlightening time of season. Furthermore, it is becoming even more recognisable that the spirits have transported his beliefs about matters like these, as he states the obvious, but in a mild way he contradicts himself as he’s going back on his original morals and starts to show some affection and emotion towards these who are worse off than him. Where as in the past (technically all his life) he wouldn’t have fluttered an eyelid†¦ â€Å"If they would rather die†¦ they had better do it, and decrease the surplus population. † At the end of the novel, Scrooge learns how to be polite to others around him. When he passes the two gentlemen, whom he’d been rude to the day before, he asks for forgiveness for his actions. â€Å"That is my name, and I fear it may not be pleasant to you. Allow me to ask your pardon. † Here Scrooge shows that he has changed and that he is proud of his name and the person attached to it. Here he also displays that he is ashamed of the way he acted towards them when they came to collect money for the poor. He also asks for forgiveness for possibly the first time in his life. Scrooge awakens, on Christmas morning, a much happier man. He is delighted to be alive and reminisces the night’s events, which have now compelled him to be a better, more improved, man. â€Å"I am as light as a feather, I am as happy as an angel, I am as merry as a schoolboy, I am as giddy as a drunken man! A merry Christmas to everybody! † He leaps about rapturously not believing his fortune, and is extremely vivacious. Scrooge changed in many ways after the visits from the three spirits. He is now charitable without seeking credit for himself, which is a complete contrast to before when he refused to donate any money to charity and was very rude to the ‘collecting’ gentlemen. An example of this change of character is when Scrooge is buying the turkey for Bob Cratchitts family he says, â€Å"I’ll send it to Bob Cratchitts†¦ He shan’t know who sends it! â€Å"

Novel Room Analysis

Jack's mother however has a tougher time than her son even though she was once part of this society. Because of her isolation for seven years and he birth of her son, Jack's mother struggles to readjust to her old life. Since her new life revolves around Jack her concern towards him at the beginning makes her adaptation a slower process but as she realizes his true importance in her life he becomes the reason for her sudden improvement. The birth of Jack gave his mother a purpose to live and a reason to believe that escape was still a possibility.When Jack's mother is being interviewed in front of a live audience, she explains Jack's impact on her life, â€Å"Jack was everything. I was alive again, I mattered† (Donahue, 233). After her unsuccessful attempts to escape from Old Nick's imprisonment, Jack's mother loses all of her faith and gives up on believing that she could have a regular life once again. This only changes when her son is born and she acquires a new purpose, re sponsibility in her life. Because she was the only person present in Jack's life, she had to pass on to him everything that she was capable of.This included simple things such as teaching him how to brush his teeth or how to take a bath. Jack would not have learned these things if it were not for his mother. She knows how important she is to him when she says, â€Å"l was just afraid Jack would get ill – me too, he needed me to be K† (233). This idea of being needed by someone is what Jack's mother needs to keep going and to forget the circumstances that she was living in. As a consequence of being born hidden from society, Jack grew in an imaginary world which was created by his mother.This was done to prevent Jack from dreaming of a life that he could never have and to give his mother control over things. However, this only worked until they were rescued exposing Jack to the real world. When the interviewer asks his mother if it will be easier to untie raising jack i n this new world she says it will be more difficult. She says, â€Å"Its actually harder. When our world was eleven foot square it was easier to control. Lots of things are freaking Jack right now. But I hate the way the media call him a freak, or an idiot savant, or feral, that word† (236).Jack's mother is not only worried about her son's future but she is also wondering whether this fantasy she created for her son was a great idea. This concern she has towards Jack is making her life miserable because she has not only to take care of herself but also of her son. The mother was locked up for seven ears and just like Jack she has to adapt to society once again. The way the media sees and talks about him affects her because she does not see him that way. She is afraid that he will suffer for the rest of life if this image others have of him does not change.The overwhelming pressure and responsibility Jack's mother experiences causes her to try to take her life away. When Jack returns from a trip with his uncle he notices that something is wrong, â€Å"l see Ma's pill bottles open on the table, they look mostly empty. Never more than two, that's the rule, how could they be mostly empty, where id the pills go? ‘ (249). Swallowing the extra pills is the best way Jack's mother sees to avoid having to face her problems. She knows attack's adaptation to society will not happen suddenly and for it to move forward she needs to participate.However, she does not think that she is well and ready enough to play the supportive and strong mother figure Jack needs at this moment. The way she deals with her desperation by giving up on everything and everyone around her shows her lack of maturity. If she dealt with her problems as a mature adult she would not have done what she did because at first she loud have thought about Jack instead of herself. The constant attention and questioning from the media makes her doubt whether she would be up for the challenge of taking care of Jack.When she is being interviewed, Jack's mother demonstrates how tired she is of the all the attention they have been getting lately, â€Å"I'm not a saint. Wish people would stop treating us like we're the only ones who ever lived through something terrible. â€Å"(235). Besides doubting herself there were others including family members that disbelieved in her capacity. It is clear that her insecurity is worsened by other people's pylons. When Jack's mother realizes of the mistake she is done, she decides to start from the beginning with her son.When Jack sees her mother for the first time after her incident she says, â€Å"Guess what, Jack, you and me have our own For someone who is been through a lot, the idea of living on her own with a five year old child is not an easy decision. This strength she shows is a result of her immense love for her son. The mother at this point has already realized that she needs Jack just as much as he needs her. Jack instead of making her adaptation a slower process helps his mother o see that moving on by building a new life could be the answer to all of her problems.When Jack's mother mentions to one of her counselors that Jack has been enough for her, she is told that this is a result of her becoming a mature and responsible mother (314). She is not the same woman she was before she was taken. Raising Jack is the only pride she has left and the only thing that keeps her going. Regardless all of the suffering and sacrifices, she raised a perfectly healthy child that has the potential to be successful in the future. The love Jack's mother has for her son is the major factor for err improvement, well – being.

Causes of XY females Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Causes of XY females - Essay Example Studd (2003) points out that earlier such condition was called Testicular Feminization Syndrome (TFS), but this is now being considered somewhat inappropriate and inaccurate because the testes are not known to produce feminizing factors. This phenomenon is therefore known as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS). This insensitivity too is found to occur in varying measures in people. The condition when the Androgens find no response with age, is termed as Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS). The growth as an 'XY female' is considered as abnormal and hence put into the category of patients. Researchers have found that such patients lead a normal life till their abnormal condition is diagnosed by doctors. For example, when a form of male pseudohermaphroditism or testicular feminization syndrome is detected. In this case the androgen receptor sees mutations which in result in X-linked recessive form androgen insensitivity. The childhood of such persons remains quite normal but when the child enters the age of puberty, problem starts. In fact, normally even the parents fail to fathom the distinctive nature of their children and they come to know about it only when they visit specialist gynecologists in order to treat the sterile behavior. Abnormality in Androgen Receptor (AR) is stated to be the reason behind CAIS.

3. How does Poe use setting as a Gothic element in The Fall of the Essay

3. How does Poe use setting as a Gothic element in The Fall of the House of Usher, William Wilson, and The Tell Tale Heart - Essay Example Thus, references to ‘a dull, dark, and soundless day in the autumn of the year’, ‘clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens’, ‘passing alone, on horseback’, ‘singularly dreary tract of country’, ‘the melancholy House of Usher’, etc in the story clearly indicate that the author makes use of the setting of the story as a means to create the Gothic mood. A reflective analysis of the Gothic elements in this story confirms that there is an absolute emphasis on setting – both exterior (landscape) and interior (houses and mansion). The author makes use of the fungi covered front of the mansion to create the unusual setting of the story. Similarly, Edgar Allan Poe employs savage actions in the Gothic setting in the story â€Å"William Wilson† which tells about the life and crime of the narrator. The author obviously brings out the Gothic setting of the story when he refers to ‘large, rambling, Elizabethan house, in a misty-looking village of England’, ‘vast number of gigantic and gnarled trees’, ‘dream-like and spirit-soothing place’, ‘the stillness of the dusky atmosphere’, etc. â€Å"The Tell Tale Heart† by Poe is another significant example of how the author uses setting as a Gothic element. In this story, the dark, disconcerting location, death and decay, and the existence of evil and madness, etc bring about the Gothic elements and Poe’s works are celebrated for the exceptional use of medieval settings, shadowy atmospheres, and mysterious and violent

Macroeconomics - Supply And Demand Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Macroeconomics - Supply And Demand - Term Paper Example Demand, in this context, refers to the quantity of goods and services, which are desired by consumers at any given time and price. For example, if the demand for Laptops is said to be higher than that of Desktops, it means that majority of consumers in the market prefer buying laptops over desktops and hence those businesses dealing with these items would have to consider stocking more laptops than desktops or otherwise risk making losses or minimal profits as a result of low sales. Supply on the other hand refers to the level at which producers avail their products to the market. In this context, if the supply of a commodity is insufficient, then it means that there would not be enough in the market to satisfy the quantities needed by consumers (Thompson 18). In this paper, I will discuss, in detail, factors that affect supply and demand for commodities. With regard to demand, I will discuss factors such as price, which will be explained through a demand curve in order to illustrate the law of demand, income, and future expectations, which will show that customers may refuse to buy commodities in large quantities if they are aware of a possibility of a reduction in price within certain duration of time. Tastes and preferences will also be discussed as having a short term influence on demand as they are subject to rapid change. Factors affecting supply as discussed herein will include prevailing market prices of commodities, illustrated through a supply curve, government policies and speculation. The law of demand states that the higher the price of a commodity, the lower the demand and the lower the price the higher the demand. It therefore goes without saying that price is one of the most important determinants of demand (Krugman 25). Consumers will always consider foregoing expensive items in their budget especially if there are substitutes, which are selling at a lower price or simply due to opportunity cost. For

The Call Centre and Tengo Ltd Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Call Centre and Tengo Ltd - Assignment Example It is with regards to these facts that the researcher has endeavored to investigate the reasons behind such poor quality service and high employee turnover in the company’s customer contact division. The research revealed that the managers faltered on number of levels within the framework of strategic human resource management. Their authoritarian type leadership combined with the absence of adequate training and development facilities as well as reward and recognition framework has significantly deteriorated the motivation level of several employees which in turn increased the employee turnover in the customer contact center. Therefore, after exploring the ongoing situation in Tengo’s customer contact centre, the managers are recommended to follow a follow a team leadership style by emphasizing on the welfare of the employees as well as having adequate training and development programs in place. They are also advised to have proper payment and reward packages in order to boost the engagement level of the employee base by appreciating their effort through appropriate compensations. In addition the managers should also make the employees an integral part of the organizational decision making process in order to make them feel valued within the company. It is expected that the adoption of these measures are likely to remedy the employee turnover issue in the company. Managing human resource within an organization is arguably the most important responsibility that needs to be handled with utmost sincerity and care by human resource managers (Armstrong, 2012). HR managers need to have a thorough knowledge of the competency and skill sets of the employee base in order to allocate them in different functional departments as per requirement. Shuffling the workforce skillfully is an art and this activity serves as one of the fundamental determinants of organizational success (Hendry and Pettigrew,

The Nexus between agency theory and corporate governance Essay

The Nexus between agency theory and corporate governance - Essay Example This essay tries to explain the agency theory and corporate governance in the present day environment. Economists recently are more diverted to the phenomenon of organisation. The recently formulated organisation theory agency theory is different from the ones which existed in the past. Fama (1980) focused at the possible managerial labour market to restrain and guide individual decision-making expedience. In essence all these various statements are construed based on a few simple assumptions. These assumptions according to Donaldson (1990) are construed as a 'theory of interest, motivation and compliance'."Specifically, agency theory is directed at the ubiquitous relationship, in which one party (the principal) delegates work to another (the agent), who performs that work. Agency theory attempts to describe this relationship using the metaphor of a contract" (Eisenhardt, 1989: p58).The neoclassical school analyses the individual who tries to maximise or in the least to satisfy their utility between work and time off. This combination of assumed independence and selfish enthusiasm that is problematic within the relationship of agent and principal. In terms of corporate governance the shareholder is the principal. The problem arises due to the separation of ownership and control.According to Jill Solomon (2007) the failure to corporate governance and corporate crumple can take place in the firmest company. It is possible to seduce the Investors, creditors and employees through a company's repute and achievement. This can even throw caution to the wind. If the agents of economic accountability were intellectuals, as it is a must based on the economic and finance theory, this form of sightlessness could never occur. But the problem is that it does happen, investors behave rationally not always, and the factors of human behaviour and psychology are tricky to fit in a finance framework or an economic hypothesis. Cases of irrational behaviour in the UK during the 198 0s were that of Polly Peck and Coloroll. This was a case when the capitalist found very important information relating to contingent liabilities were missing from the accounts of these companies (Smith et all, 1992). Differences between managers and shareowners Agency theory brings up a basic problem in organizations and that is self-interested conduct. The managers of a corporation normally have their own goals which often cross roads with the proprietor's goal of maximising shareholder wealth. As it is the shareholders who give power to the managers to manage the firm's wealth, a prospective difference of opinion arises between the two groups. Agency Cost How does the agent that is the company directors serve the principal that is the shareholders is the question. The solution lies in accepting certain agency costs. These costs involve either in producing incentives or approve which adjust executive egoism with the concerns of shareholders. Or else they may be involved in supervising executive behaviour in order to restrain their self-interest. This led to the development of the number of non-executives on the company boards. Also it resulted in augmented arrangement of their function and considerations of freedom, leading to reforms all over the world. The separation of the part played by the chief executive and that played by the non-executive has been made a part of this reform. The establishment of audit, compensation, and recommendations committees is actually independent non-executives appointed to assure the proper use of the incentives and also to check the performance of the executives. These internal controls

Inclusive Education and SEN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Inclusive Education and SEN - Essay Example Over the years, different nations have built systems that take care of associates with disabilities. The SEN and inclusion programs have developed a call for the liberty to education for disabled persons in response. The two bear complex linkages through various aspects such as policy interpretation, individual experiences and civic voices. The people in support of the inclusion systems for children with exceptional needs have brought out the idea that inclusive edification becomes essential for all children involved in the learning process. They additionally argue that differences can be a preserve that can be utilized in society development. The implication of all this is that inclusive edification offers to address the learning requirements for all individuals bearing an explicit concentration on the persons susceptible to marginalization and segregation. Inclusion of the people bearing additional needs in the education systems functions as the best or most effective step towards the prevention of discriminatory mindsets, creation of friendly communal backgrounds, developing or transforming the discriminatory society into an all inclusive society and finally achieving the edification goal for every person (Aniftos & McLuskie 2004, 2). The inclusion system implies that democracy has achieved societal action throughout the curriculum offered to all children despite their physical health. Democracy in education has to gain positive attitudes from all people, and the general populace has to be geared up to identify, and value the exceptional uniqueness of every person. Introduction of inclusive learning is meant to bring total transformation in the educational system and build a model through has greater orientation regarding inclusive ideas. To this effect, advanced intellect institutions have to come up with and incorporate new familiarity concerning inclusive learning supervision. The inclusion system raises concerns for teachers on its practicalities and the anomalies that it presents. The concerns have in response has led to development of mind-sets towards children with additional needs since most of them attain low on standard assessments (Robertson 2008, 9). Bearing in thoughts that regular education got strategically designed for typical children, the inclusion of children bearing additional needs means that certain features of special education have to be incorporated into regular education, in an attempt to cater for the assorted learners. The practices may offer barriers to effective learning for other learners even though such practices may seem effective for miniature groups of persons having disabilities (Aniftos & McLuskie 2004, 2). The fact that the traditional models have worked for unique people in the past may be biased taking into thought the recent periods. The medical and social paradigms are the two divergent models of disability that are considered most crucial. The models aim at conveying a better comprehension of disability taking into thought diverse, fundamental aspects. The medical model brings the implication that disability is a personal problem. According to this model, somebody bearing impairment either eyesight, earshot or mobility impairment gets considered as their disabilities. The model can also be referred to as the personal tragedy paradigm considering that it regards the complexities that impaired persons

Poetry as a means of establishment of a closer connection between a Essay

Poetry as a means of establishment of a closer connection between a poet and a reader - Essay Example To see how thematic issues and such special aesthetic qualities of the genre of poetry combine, one can turn attention to the poem that on the superficial level may seem to be devoted to the description of a filling station visited by the author who is the speaker. However, the theme of the poem is much wider than that - in fact, the authors choice of setting that creates a mini-plot of the poem, of characters, to which not only the owner of the station and his sons may be attributed but dog and even a begonia plant as well, and of a unique atmosphere of surprise and discovery of unusual things in usual environment turns out to be perhaps the best way to simultaneously tell a short story about a short visit to the dirty filling station, and express intense emotion that infects readers and makes them feel like they themselves are wondering about the strange and so invigorating coexistence of dirt, oil, and of elements symbolizing ever-present human concern for happiness and meaning em bodied by wickerwork, comic books, taboret and doily with marguerites, and begonia. The most important tool that enabled the poet to establish such a strong emotional poetic effect over readers was definitely the usage of language in the poem as the author reinforces its thematic content by free v

Mathlab Simulink Project Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mathlab Simulink Project - Lab Report Example Communication toolbox is the boundary of matlab simulink is a graphical building block, diagramming tool, improved to resemble set of slab libraries. The matlab environment associates itself with the matlab and the engaging patterns of the two offers a tight and integrated move with the rest of the matlab environment. Additionally, this establishes matlab and can either be driven from the matlab itself or be scripted from it. Moreover, simulink, majorly used in control theory and error correction digital gesture dispensation of multidomain model and model-based plan helps in improving the performance and ability of matlab usage in determining error correction and coding methods. In conclusion, matlab simulink integrates its functions in order to have its performance at the best productive level for correcting errors and improving coding methods within a communication toolbox (Cassandras, 22). The reference signal operates from the coding methods. It moves in a graph line from 1 time offset all through frequencies as shown above in a upward and downward movements to give a graph of the above nature, therefore, confirming the principle of error correction and coding methods of up and down movements based on the wavelength of the signal and frequency. The control signal also operates almost in the same design but the movement and frequency of the graph is much more different as shown in the diagram below. The control signal has an upward steady movement with the wavelength up to 2, then a steady movement across the time offset meaning it’s the control signal that manipulates and confirms the idea of error correction and the coding methods of the communication tool box. It corrects the signal by allowing for steady flow of the signal within the communication toolbox. The developers and instructors of matlab have made an improving through the knowledge of the product developers and other stakeholders of the engineering field

An Introduction to Genre Theory Essay Example for Free

An Introduction to Genre Theory Essay An Introduction to Genre Theory Daniel Chandler 1. The problem of definition A number of perennial doubts plague genre theory. Are genres really out there in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culturebound or transcultural? Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? (Stam 2000, 14) The word genre comes from the French (and originally Latin) word for kind or class. The term is  widely used in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and more recently linguistics, to refer to a distinctive type of text*. Robert Allen notes that for most of its 2,000 years, genre study has been primarily nominological and typological in function. That is to say, it has taken as its principal task the division of the world of literature into types and the naming of those types much as the botanist divides the realm of flora into varieties of plants (Allen 1989, 44). As will be seen, however, the analogy with biological classification into genus and species misleadingly suggests a scientific process. Since classical times literary works have been classified as belonging to general types which were variously defined. In literature the broadest division is between poetry, prose and drama, within which there are further divisions, such as tragedy and comedy within the category of drama. Shakespeare referred satirically to classifications such as tragedy, comedy, history, pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, tragical-comicalhistorical-pastoral (Hamlet II ii). In The Anatomy of Criticism the formalist literary theorist Northrop Frye (1957) presented certain universal genres and modes  as the key to organizing the entire literary corpus. Contemporary media genres tend to relate more to specific forms than to the universals of tragedy and comedy. Nowadays, films are routinely classified (e. g. in television listings magazines) as thrillers, westerns and so on genres with which every adult in modern society is familiar. So too with television genres such as game shows and sitcoms. Whilst we have names for countless genres in many media, some theorists have argued that there are also many genres (and sub-genres) for which we have no names (Fowler 1989, 216; Wales 1989, 206). Carolyn Miller  suggests that the number of genres in any society depends on the complexity and diversity of society (Miller 1984, in Freedman Medway 1994a, 36). The classification and hierarchical taxonomy of genres is not a neutral and objective procedure. There are no undisputed maps of the system of genres within any medium (though literature may perhaps lay some claim to a loose consensus). Furthermore, there is often considerable theoretical disagreement about the definition of specific genres. A genre is ultimately an abstract conception rather than something that exists empirically in the world,  notes Jane Feuer (1992, 144). One theorists genre may be anothers sub-genre or even super-genre (and indeed what is technique, style, mode, formula or thematic grouping to one may be treated as a genre by another). Themes, at least, seem inadequate as a basis for defining genres since, as David Bordwell notes, any theme may appear in any genre (Bordwell 1989, 147). He asks: Are animation and documentary films genres or modes? Is the filmed play or comedy performance a genre? If tragedy and comedy are genres, perhaps then domestic tragedy or slapstick is a formula. In  passing, he offers a useful inventory of categories used in film criticism, many of which have been accorded the status of genres by various commentators: Grouping by period or country (American films of the 1930s), by director or star or producer or writer or studio, by technical process (Cinemascope films), by cycle (the fallen women films), by series (the 007 movies), by style (German Expressionism), by structure (narrative), by ideology (Reaganite cinema), by venue (drive-in movies), by purpose (home movies), by audience (teenpix), by subject or theme (family film, paranoid-politics movies). (Bordwell 1989, 148) Another film theorist, Robert Stam, also refers to common ways of categorizing films: While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), locat[ion] (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema). (Stam 2000, 14). Bordwell concludes that one could argue that no set of necessary and sufficient conditions can  mark off genres from other sorts of groupings in ways that all experts or ordinary film-goers would find An Introduction to Genre Theory acceptable (Bordwell 1989, 147). Practitioners and the general public make use of their own genre labels (de facto genres) quite apart from those of academic theorists. We might therefore ask ourselves Whose genre is it anyway? Still further problems with definitional approaches will become apparent in due course. Defining genres may not initially seem particularly problematic but it should already be apparent that it is a theoretical minefield. Robert Stam identifies four key problems with generic labels (in relation to film): extension (the breadth or narrowness of labels); normativism (having preconceived ideas of criteria for genre membership); monolithic definitions (as if an item belonged to only one genre); biologism (a kind of essentialism in which genres are seen as evolving through a standardized life cycle) (Stam 2000, 128129). Conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the notion that they constitute particular conventions of content (such as themes or settings) and/or form (including structure and style) which  are shared by the texts which are regarded as belonging to them. Alternative characterizations will be discussed in due course. The attempt to define particular genres in terms of necessary and sufficient textual properties is sometimes seen as theoretically attractive but it poses many difficulties. For instance, in the case of films, some seem to be aligned with one genre in content and another genre in form. The film theorist Robert Stam argues that subject matter is the weakest criterion for generic grouping because it fails to take into account how the subject is treated (Stam 2000, 14). Outlining a fundamental problem of  genre identification in relation to films, Andrew Tudor notes the empiricist dilemma: To take a genre such as the western, analyze it, and list its principal characteristics, is to beg the question that we must first isolate the body of films which are westerns. But they can only be isolated on the basis of the principal characteristics which can only be discovered from the films themselves after they have been isolated. (Cited in Gledhill 1985, 59) It is seldom hard to find texts which are exceptions to any given definition of a particular genre. There are no rigid rules of inclusion and exclusion (Gledhill 1985, 60). Genres are not discrete systems, consisting of a fixed number of listable items (ibid. , 64). It is difficult to make clear-cut distinctions between one genre and another: genres overlap, and there are mixed genres (such as comedy-thrillers). 2 Specific genres tend to be easy to recognize intuitively but difficult (if not impossible) to define. Particular features which are characteristic of a genre are not normally unique to it; it is their relative prominence, combination and functions which are distinctive (Neale 1980, 22-3). It is easy to underplay the differences within a genre. Steve Neale declares  that genres are instances of repetition and difference (Neale 1980, 48). He adds that difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre (ibid. , 50): mere repetition would not attract an audience. Tzvetan Todorov argued that any instance of a genre will be necessarily different (cited in Gledhill 1985, 60). John Hartley notes that the addition of just one film to the Western genre changes that genre as a whole even though the Western in question may display few of the recognized conventions, styles or subject matters traditionally associated with its genre (OSullivan et al. 1994). The issue of difference also  highlights the fact that some genres are looser more open-ended in their conventions or more permeable in their boundaries than others. Texts often exhibit the conventions of more than one genre. John Hartley notes that the same text can belong to different genres in different countries or times (OSullivan et al. 1994, 129). Hybrid genres abound (at least outside theoretical frameworks). Van Leeuwen suggests that the multiple purposes of journalism often lead to generically heterogeneous texts (cited in Fairclough 1995, 88). Norman Fairclough suggests that mixed-genre texts are far from uncommon in the mass media (Fairclough 1995, 89). Some media may encourage more generic diversity: Nicholas Abercrombie notes that since television comes at the audience as a flow of programmes, all with different generic conventions, means that it is more difficult to sustain the purity of the genre in the viewing experience (Abercrombie 1996, 45; his emphasis). Furthermore, in any medium the generic classification of certain texts may be uncertain or subject to dispute. Contemporary theorists tend to describe genres in terms of family resemblances among texts (a notion derived from the philosopher Wittgenstein) rather than definitionally (Swales 1990, 49). An individual text within a genre rarely if ever has all of the characteristic features of the genre (Fowler 1989, 215). The family resemblance approaches involves the theorist illustrating similarities between some of the texts within a genre. However, the family resemblance approach has been criticized on the basis that no choice of a text for illustrative purposes is innocent (David Lodge, cited in Swales 1990, 50), and that such theories can make any text seem to resemble any other one (Swales 1990, 51). In addition to the definitional and family resemblance approach, there is  An Introduction to Genre Theory another approach to describing genres which is based on the psycholinguistic concept of prototypicality. According to this approach, some texts would be widely regarded as being more typical members of a genre than others. According to this approach certain features would identify the extent to which an exemplar is prototypical of a particular genre (Swales 1990, 52). Genres can therefore be seen as fuzzy categories which cannot be defined by necessary and sufficient conditions. How we define a genre depends on our purposes;  the adequacy of our definition in terms of social science at least must surely be related to the light that the exploration sheds on the phenomenon. For instance (and this is a key concern of mine), if we are studying the way in which genre frames the readers interpretation of a text then we would do well to focus on how readers identify genres rather than on theoretical distinctions. Defining genres may be problematic, but even if theorists were to abandon the concept, in everyday life people would continue to categorize texts. John Swales does note that a discourse communitys nomenclature for genres is an  important source of insight (Swales 1990, 54), though like many academic theorists he later adds that such genre names typically need further validation (ibid. , 58). Some genre names would be likely to be more widely-used than others: it would be interesting to investigate the areas of popular consensus and dissensus in relation to the everyday labeling of mass media genres. For Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress, genres only exist in so far as a social group declares and enforces the rules that constitute them (Hodge Kress 1988, 7), though it is debatable to  what extent most of us would be able to formulate explicit rules for the textual genres we use routinely: much of our genre knowledge is likely to be tacit. In relation to film, Andrew Tudor argued that genre is what we collectively believe it to be (though this begs the question about who we are). Robert Allen comments wryly that Tudor even hints that in order to establish what audiences expect a western to be like we might have to ask them (Allen 1989, 47). Swales also alludes to people having repertoires of genres (Swales 1990, 58), which I would argue would also be likely to repay  investigation. However, as David Buckingham notes, there has hardly been any empirical research on the ways in which real audiences might understand genre, or use this understanding in making sense of specific texts (Buckingham 1993, 137). Steve Neale stresses that genres are not systems: they are processes of systematization (Neale 1980, 51; my emphasis; cf. Neale 1995, 463). Traditionally, genres (particularly literary genres) tended to be regarded 3 as fixed forms, but contemporary theory emphasizes that both their forms and functions are dynamic. David Buckingham argues that genre is not simply given by the culture: rather, it is in a constant process of negotiation and change (Buckingham 1993, 137). Nicholas Abercrombie suggests that the boundaries between genres are shifting and becoming more permeable (Abercrombie 1996, 45); Abercrombie is concerned with modern television, which he suggests seems to be engaged in a steady dismantling of genre (ibid. ) which can be attributed in part to economic pressures to pursue new audiences. One may acknowledge the dynamic fluidity of genres without positing the final demise of genre as an interpretive framework. As the generic corpus ceaselessly expands, genres (and the relationships between them) change over time; the conventions of each genre shift, new genres and sub-genres emerge and others are discontinued (though note that certain genres seem particularly long-lasting). Tzvetan Todorov argued that a new genre is always the transformation of one or several old genres (cited in Swales 1990, 36). Each new work within a genre has the potential to influence changes within the genre or perhaps the emergence of new sub-genres (which may later blossom into fully-fledged genres). However, such a perspective tends to highlight the role of authorial experimentation in changing genres and their conventions, whereas it is important to recognize not only the social nature of text production but especially the role of economic and technological factors as well as changing audience preferences. The interaction between genres and media can be seen as one of the forces which contributes to changing genres. Some genres are more powerful than others: they differ in the status which is attributed to them by those who produce texts within them and by their audiences. As Tony Thwaites et al. put it, in the interaction and conflicts among genres we can see the connections between textuality and power (Thwaites et al. 1994, 104). The key genres in institutions which are primary definers (such as news reports in the mass media) help to establish the frameworks within which issues are defined. But genre hierarchies also shift over time, with individual genres constantly gaining and losing different groups of users and relative status. Idealist theoretical approaches to genre which seek to categorize ideal types in terms of essential textual characteristics are ahistorical. As a result of  their dynamic nature as processes, Neale argues that definitions of genre are always historically relative, and therefore historically specific (Neale 1995, 464). Similarly, Boris Tomashevsky insists that no firm logical classification of genres is possible. Their de- An Introduction to Genre Theory marcation is always historical, that is to say, it is correct only for a specific moment of history (cited in Bordwell 1989, 147). Some genres are defined only retrospectively, being unrecognized as such by the original producers and audiences. Genres need to be studied as historical phenomena; a popular focus in  film studies, for instance, has been the evolution of conventions within a genre. Current genres go through phases or cycles of popularity (such as the cycle of disaster films in the 1970s), sometimes becoming dormant for a period rather than disappearing. On-going genres and their conventions themselves change over time. Reviewing evolutionary change in some popular film genres, Andrew Tudor concludes that it has three main characteristics: First, in that innovations are added to an existent corpus rather than replacing redundant elements, it is cumulative. Second, in that  these innovations must be basically consistent with what is already present, it is conservative. Third, in that these processes lead to the crystallization of specialist sub-genres, it involves differentiation. (Tudor 1974, 225-6) Tudor himself is cautious about adopting the biological analogy of evolution, with its implication that only those genres which are well-adapted to their functions survive. Christine Gledhill also notes the danger of essentialism in selecting definitive classic examples towards which earlier examples evolve and after which others decline (Gledhill 1985, 59). The cycles and transformations of genres can nevertheless be seen as a response to political, social and economic conditions. Referring to film, Andrew Tudor notes that a genre defines a moral and social world (Tudor 1974, 180). Indeed, a genre in any medium can be seen as embodying certain values and ideological assumptions. Again in the context of the cinema Susan Hayward argues that genre conventions change according to the ideological climate of the time, contrasting John Wayne westerns with Clint Eastwood as the problematic hero or anti-hero (Hayward 1996, 50). Leo Baudry (cited in Hayward 1996, 162) sees film genres as a barometer of the social and cultural concerns of cinema audiences; Robert Lichter et al. (1991) illustrate how televisual genres reflect the values of the programme-makers. Some commentators see mass media genres from a particular era as reflecting values which were dominant at the time. Ira Konigsberg, for instance, suggests that texts within genres embody the moral values of a culture (Konigsberg 1987, 144-5). And John Fiske asserts that generic conventions embody the crucial ideological concerns of the time in which they are popular 4 (Fiske 1987, 110). However, Steve Neale stresses that genres may also help to shape such values (Neale 1980, 16). Thwaites et al. see the relationship as reciprocal: a genre develops according to social conditions; transformations in genre and texts can influence and reinforce social conditions (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Some Marxist commentators see genre as an instrument of social control which reproduces the dominant ideology. Within this perspective, the genre positions the audience in order to naturalize the ideologies which are embedded in the text (Feuer 1992, 145). Bernadette Casey comments that recently, structuralists and feminist theorists, among others, have focused on the way in which generically defined structures may operate to construct particular ideologies and values, and to encourage reassuring and conservative interpretations of a given text (Casey 193, 312). However, reader-oriented commentators have stressed that people are capable of reading against the grain. Thomas and Vivian Sobchack note that in the past popular film-makers, intent on telling a story, were not always aware of the covert psychological and social  subtext of their own films, but add that modern film-makers and their audiences are now more keenly aware of the myth-making accomplished by film genres (Sobchack Sobchack 1980, 245). Genre can reflect a function which in relation to television Horace Newcombe and Paul Hirsch referred to as a cultural forum, in which industry and audience negotiate shared beliefs and values, helping to maintain the social order and assisting it in adapting to change (Feuer 1992, 145). Certainly, genres are far from being ideologically neutral. Sonia Livingstone argues, indeed, that different genres are concerned to establish different world views (Livingstone 1990, 155). Related to the ideological dimension of genres is one modern redefinition in terms of purposes. In relation to writing, Carolyn Miller argues that a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish (Carolyn Miller 1984, in Freedman Medway 1994a, 24). Following this lead, John Swales declares that the principal criterial feature that turns a collection of communicative  events into a genre is some shared set of communicative purposes (Swales 1990, 46). In relation to the mass media it can be fruitful to consider in relation to genre the purposes not only of the producers of texts but also of those who interpret them (which need not be assumed always to match). A consensus about the primary purposes of some genres (such as news bulletins) and of their readers is probably easier to establish than in relation to others (such as westerns), where the very term purpose sounds too in- An Introduction to Genre Theory strumental. However, uses and gratifications researchers have already conducted investigations into the various functions that the mass media seem to serve for people, and ethnographic studies have offered fruitful insights into this dimension. Miller argues that both in writing and reading within genres we learn purposes appropriate to the genre; in relation to the mass media it could be argued that particular genres develop, frame and legitimate particular concerns, questions and pleasures. Related redefinitions of genre focus more broadly on the relationship between the makers and audiences  of texts (a rhetorical dimension). To varying extents, the formal features of genres establish the relationship between producers and interpreters. Indeed, in relation to mass media texts Andrew Tolson redefines genre as a category which mediates between industry and audience (Tolson 1996, 92). Note that such approaches undermine the definition of genres as purely textual types, which excludes any reference even to intended audiences. A basic model underlying contemporary media theory is a triangular relationship between the text, its producers and its interpreters. From the perspective of many recent commentators, genres first and foremost provide frameworks within which texts are produced and interpreted. Semiotically, a genre can be seen as a shared code between the producers and interpreters of texts included within it. Alastair Fowler goes so far as to suggest that communication is impossible without the agreed codes of genre (Fowler 1989, 216). Within genres, texts embody authorial attempts to position readers using particular modes of address. Gunther Kress observes that: Every genre positions those who participate in  a text of that kind: as interviewer or interviewee, as listener or storyteller, as a reader or a writer, as a person interested in political matters, as someone to be instructed or as someone who instructs; each of these positionings implies different possibilities for response and for action. Each written text provides a reading position for readers, a position constructed by the writer for the ideal reader of the text. (Kress 1988, 107) Thus, embedded within texts are assumptions about the ideal reader, including their attitudes towards the subject matter and often their class, age, gender and ethnicity. Gunther Kress defines a genre as a kind of text that derives its form from the structure of a (frequently repeated) social occasion, with its characteristic participants and their purposes (Kress 1988, 183). An interpretative emphasis on genre as opposed 5 to individual texts can help to remind us of the social nature of the production and interpretation of texts. In relation to film, many modern commentators refer to the commercial and industrial significance of genres. Denis McQuail argues that: The genre may be considered as a practical  device for helping any mass medium to produce consistently and efficiently and to relate its production to the expectations of its customers. Since it is also a practical device for enabling individual media users to plan their choices, it can be considered as a mechanism for ordering the relations between the two main parties to mass communication. (McQuail 1987, 200) Steve Neale observes that genres exist within the context of a set of economic relations and practices, though he adds that genres are not the product of economic factors as such. The conditions provided by the capitalist economy account neither for the existence of the particular genres that have hitherto been produced, nor for the existence of the conventions that constitute them (Neale 1980, 51-2). Economic factors may account for the perpetuation of a profitable genre. Nicholas Abercrombie notes that television producers set out to exploit genre conventions It makes sound economic sense. Sets, properties and costumes can be used over and over again. Teams of stars, writers, directors and technicians can be built up, giving economies of scale (Abercrombie 1996, 43). He adds that genres permit the creation and maintenance of a loyal audience which becomes used to seeing programmes within a genre (ibid. ). Genres can be seen as a means of controlling demand (Neale 1980, 55). The relative stability of genres enables producers to predict audience expectations. Christine Gledhill notes that differences between genres meant different audiences could be identified and catered to This made it easier to standardize and stabilise production (Gledhill 1985, 58). In relation to the mass media, genre is part of the process of targeting different market sectors. Traditionally, literary and film critics in particular have regarded generic texts (by which they mean formulaic texts) as inferior to those which they contend are produced outside a generic framework. Indeed, film theorists frequently refer to popular films as genre films in contrast to non-formula films. Elitist critics reject the generic fiction of the mass media because they are commercial products of popular culture rather than high art. Many harbor the Romantic ideology of the primacy of authorial originality and vision, emphasizing individual style  and artistic self-expression. In this tradition the An Introduction to Genre Theory artist (in any medium) is seen as breaking the mould of convention. For the Italian aesthetician Benedetto Croce (1866-1952), an artistic work was always unique and there could be no artistic genres. More recently, some literary and film theorists have accorded more importance to genre, counteracting the ideology of authorial primacy (or auteurism, as it is known in relation to the emphasis on the director in film). Contemporary theorists tend to emphasize the importance of the semiotic notion of intertextuality: of seeing individual texts in relation to others. Katie Wales notes that genre is an intertextual concept (Wales 1989, 259). John Hartley suggests that we need to understand genre as a property of the relations between texts (OSullivan et al. 1994, 128). And as Tony Thwaites et al. put it, each text is influenced by the generic rules in the way it is put together; the generic rules are reinforced by each text (Thwaites et al. 1994, 100). Roland Barthes (1975) argued that it is in relation to other texts within a genre rather than in relation to lived experience that we make sense of certain  events within a text. There are analogies here with schema theory in psychology, which proposes that we have mental scripts which help us to interpret 6 familiar events in everyday life. John Fiske offers this striking example: A representation of a car chase only makes sense in relation to all the others we have seen after all, we are unlikely to have experienced one in reality, and if we did, we would, according to this model, make sense of it by turning it into another text, which we would also understand intertextually, in terms of what we have seen so often on our screens. There is then a cultural knowledge of the concept car chase that any one text is a prospectus for, and that it used by the viewer to decode it, and by the producer to encode it. (Fiske 1987, 115) In contrast to those of a traditionalist literary bent who tend to present artistic texts as nongeneric, it could be argued that it is impossible to produce texts which bear no relationship whatsoever to established genres. Indeed, Jacques Derrida proposed that a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without a genre. Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genre-less text  (Derrida 1981, 61). Note *In these notes, words such as text, reader and writer are sometimes used as general terms relating to texts (and so on) in whatever medium is being discussed: no privileging of the written word (graphocentrism) is intended. Whilst it is hard to find an alternative for the word texts, terms such as makers and interpreters are sometimes used here as terms non-specific to particular media instead of the terms writers and readers. 2. Working within genres John Hartley argues that genres are agents of ideological closure they limit the meaning-potential  of a given text (OSullivan et al. 1994, 128). Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress define genres as typical forms of texts which link kinds of producer, consumer, topic, medium, manner and occasion, adding that they control the behavior of producers of such texts, and the expectations of potential consumers (Hodge Kress 1988, 7). Genres can be seen as constituting a kind of tacit contract between authors and readers. From the traditional Romantic perspective, genres are seen as constraining and inhibiting authorial creativity. However, contemporary theorists, even  within literary studies, typically reject this view (e. g. Fowler 1982: 31). Gledhill notes that one perspective on this issue is that some of those who write within a genre work in creative tension with the conventions, attempting a personal inflection of them (Gledhill 1985: 63). From the point of view of the producers of texts within a genre, an advantage of genres is that they can rely on readers already having knowledge and expectations about works within a genre. Fowler comments that the system of generic expectations amounts to a code, by the use of which  (or by departure from which) composition becomes more economical (Fowler 1989: 215). Genres can thus be seen as a kind of shorthand serving to increase the efficiency of communication. They may even function as a means of preventing a text from dissolving into individualism and incomprehensibility (Gledhill 1985: 63). And whilst writing within a genre involves making use of certain given conventions, every work within a genre also involves the invention of some new elements. An Introduction to Genre Theory As for reading within genres, some argue that knowledge of genre conventions leads to passive  consumption of generic texts; others argue that making sense of texts within genres is an active process of constructing meaning (Knight 1994). Genre provides an important frame of reference which helps readers to identify, select and interpret texts. Indeed, in relation to advertisements, Varda Langholz Leymore argues that the sense which viewers make of any single text depends on how it relates to the genre as a whole (Langholz Leymore 1975, ix). Key psychological functions of genre are likely to include those shared by categorization generally such as reducing complexity.

The aspects of social responsibility

The aspects of social responsibility In what ways does Priestley explore the theme of social responsibility in â€Å"An Inspector Calls†? In this essay I aim to explore all the aspects of social responsibility shown in â€Å"An Inspector Calls†. I will endeavour to do this by using dramatic devices expressed throughout the play and their significance to the play; I will also discuss the effectiveness in which Priestley conveys the theme of social responsibility. Throughout the 1930s Priestley became very aware of the social inequality in Britain at that time and in 1942 he decided to form a political party with some like-minded colleagues. The party was called the Common Wealth Party and it argued that Land ownership should be given to the public and that Britain should be more democratic in politics. In 1945 the Common Wealth Party was merged into the Labour party, but Priestley was still very influential in the way that the party was being run and helped develop the idea of a welfare state which was implemented after the war. Priestley also made many BBC radio broadcasts to try and promote the idea of socialism within the Labour Party. Social responsibility is the most discussed and possibly the most important aspect of â€Å"An Inspector Calls†. Priestleys message seems to be: Do not only look after yourself but also care for others and that people have to accept the consequences of their actions. Arthur Birling is a perfect example of this. â€Å"But take my word for it, you youngsters and Ive learnt in the good hard school of experience that a man has to mind his own business and look after himself and his own..†. In this quote Arthur is encouraging selfishness, being irresponsible and having no social responsibility, this is the complete opposite of everything that Priestley stands for as a socialist. Although this happens to work in Priestleys favour throughout the course of the play as the Inspector, who seems to voice Priestleys views as a socialist, frequently overturns Mr. Birlings and others views forcing them to be heard more habitually throughout the audience which will influence their opinions. The Birlings as a family seem to have no social responsibility, in particular Arthur makes it apparent that he has no social awareness; he illustrates no remorse when talking about Evas death, or that of his factory workers and the horrendous conditions they work in. In his speech to Eric and Gerald prior to the arrival of the Inspector he offers some ‘guidance in which he lectures on how he thinks others should be treated. â€Å"But the way some of these cranks talk and write now, youd think everybody has to look after everybody else as if we were all mixed up together like bees in a bee hive- community and all that nonsense.† Mr. Birling carries qualities such as arrogance, inconsideration, irresponsibility and lacks social awareness. The Inspectors function in the play is to educate the Birlings about collective responsibility, equality, union and consideration of others. He achieves this by using various techniques such as a shock and awe method and forcing them to feel guilt for what they have done by encouraging them to empathise with their victims. Priestley specifically set the play in 1912; this was because at this time society as a whole was completely different to how it was when Priestley wrote the play (1945). The play has investigated the matter of social class and the restrictions that come with it and also the matter of gender with one gender being dominant over the other. Although in 1945 almost all of these restrictions were gone. For instance, in 1912 it was considered compulsory for women to behave dutifully to men. The expectations on women were high and even women of aristocracy could do nothing but marry on, and for those who were born of a lower social class, it was an opportunity for cheap labour, much like the case of Eva Smith. However by 1945, the consequences of war enabled womens role in society to grow considerably. Priestley liked to see these unusual situations as an opportunity and thought that his audiences would see the potential as he did. All the way through his play he constantly encourages his a udience to take hold of the opportunity that the end of World War 2 has given them, to construct a superior more socially responsible society. When Priestley set the play in 1912 it gave him the opportunity to include references to major historical events such as the HMS Titanic, World War 1 and mining strikes. This allowed Priestley to make the audience involved and one step ahead of the ignorant characters. At first glance the genre of the play: ‘An Inspector Calls seems to be a typical murder mystery. Although as the play expands, the genre seems to transform from a theme of ignorance to a ‘whodunit as the Inspector cross-examines his way through each and every one in the Birling household. The Inspector manages to maintain control of the pace and the tension by dealing with each query individually. The story is revealed gradually, bit by bit. The lighting plays a significant part in assigning the mood and atmosphere of the play. We start Act One with a description of the scene, followed by an introduction of the main characters. At this point we are told â€Å"The lighting should be pink and intimate until the Inspector arrives, and then it should be brighter and harder.† Priestley uses a pink, warm theme of lighting to portray a sense of calm, success and self-satisfaction, ultimately reflecting the characters. Dan Anahory

False Positives In Presumptive Blood Testing Biology Essay

False Positives In Presumptive Blood Testing Biology Essay Blood is a fluid medium that is found within the cardiovascular system-which comprises of the heart and blood vessels (Jackson and Jackson 2008). It consists of 55% blood plasma and 45% cellular material (Jackson and Jackson 2008). Blood plasma consists of dissolved materials such as antibodies, hormones, waste products and nutrients, whereas the cellular material consists of erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). Blood is transported through the body by the pumping action of the heart. It has numerous functions including (Jackson and Jackson 2008): Acting as an internal transport system-including the removal of waste products for excretion and moving nutrients for metabolism. Maintaining body temperature. Defending against infection. Protecting the body from effects of injury. Blood is one of main sources of DNA found at crime scenes, and is crucially important in establishing a link between a suspect and a victim of a crime (Jackson and Jackson, 2008). To detect the presence of blood at a crime scene, a presumptive test is used. These can, however, only detect whether a substance is blood and cannot distinguish between human and animal blood-a serological test is needed to do this. The Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are the most common type of blood cell and contain haemoglobin (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They contain haemoglobin- a protein containing iron. Haemoglobin is responsible for the carriage of oxygen, and it is this property that presumptive blood tests are based on. Most of the presumptive tests rely on the ability of haemoglobin to catalyse the oxidation of a reagent, normally hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 (aq)) (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The result of oxidation normally produces a colour change in the presumptive test. Tiny amounts of blood present as a scene can be detecting using a colour change test. Some old and dried stains look similar in appearance to blood which can lead to a scenes of crime officer conducting a presumptive test. Other substances that could have contaminated suspected blood or other substances on their own at a scene could lead to a presumptive blood test incorrectly showing a positive result for blood. This is known as a false positive. Once a stain has been determined as blood, then two processes must be completed. The first is to interpret any bloodstain patterns, so that a reconstruction of events can be established (Langford et al 2005). Secondly, bloodstains must then be recovered for further analysis (Langford et al 2005). Recovery of bloodstains varies according to whether the stain is wet or dry. Once recovered, the blood can then be sent to a Forensic Science Service laboratory, where it will be initially tested to ascertain whether it is human or animal blood. To do this a serological test will be conducted, which involves identifying the presence of proteins specific to humans and analysing for DNA sequences specific to humans (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The blood will then be used for DNA profiling, which will hopefully establish whether the blood belongs to the suspect or the victim. I.II Aims and Objectives The aim of my project is to create a definitive list of false positives for four different presumptive blood tests. Within this aim I have six objectives to complete: To compare the false positives of four different presumptive tests. To test substances that are known false positives- as reported by other authors. To test unknown substances allied to those already known. To record the time taken for a substance to react with a presumptive test. To photograph the results of from each substance. To create a definitive list of false positives for each presumptive test. I am going to compare four different presumptive tests, as some tests are more practical to use in some situations than others. Consequently, analysing more than one test will allow a wider range of results. I shall also be testing known false positives as reported by other authors, as it is important to show how the presumptive tests react. Unknown substances allied to those that are known will then be tested to see whether similar substances react alike. This will then allow me to establish whether an unknown substance has reacted or not, as I can compare the reaction times and colour changes from both the known and unknown substances. It is important to record the time taken for a substance to react with a presumptive test, as blood should show a result straight away. An unobvious result that takes time to develop could indicate that the substance being tested is a false positive. Photographing results will allow me to document the differences in the colour change in each reaction with each substance. I feel that it is important to create a definitive list of false positives as it can reduce the risk of using valuable resources at a crime scene. For example, if a scenes of crime officer is informed that a possible blood stain has been contaminated with horseradish (a known false positive), then they can use a presumptive test for blood that is not known to produce a false positive with horseradish. If the result is positive for blood, then serological tests for blood can be carried out. Overall, I hope that this project will aid the work of a scenes of crime officer to choose the correct presumptive test to use in different situations-minimising time spent and resources used. Chapter II. Literature Review II.I Background Information The scientific analysis of blood was initially mentioned in 13th century Chinese texts, but it was Karl Landsteiner who discovered the modern science of blood typing, which categorises different types of blood into the ABO blood typing system (White 2010). In 1901 it was reported that blood could be determined in two week old serum stains on linen, and by 1902 the four blood types A, B, O and AB had been discovered (White 2010). This system is based on types of antigen on the red blood cells membrane. An antigen is a protein molecule capable of binding on to an antibody (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). The ABO system uses two antigens which are known as A and B; and the four blood groups are determined according to this system (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). People that have the blood group A have the A antigen, those that are group B have the B antigen; those in the AB category have both antigens and those who belong to the O group have neither antigen (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). A persons blood contai ns the opposite group of corresponding antibodies, so people with blood group A have b antibodies, people with blood group B have a antibodies, those with blood group AB have neither a or b antibodies and those with blood group O have both a and b antibodies (Erzinà §lioglu 2004). If the wrong antibodies are introduced into the wrong blood group then death can be a result due to the red cells clumping together. The first suspect to have been convicted largely on the basis of DNA analysis of blood samples was found guilty at Leicester Crown Court on 22nd January 1988 (White 2010). This case marks an important milestone, and DNA technology has become commonplace in forensic laboratories and is now instrumental in establishing both guilt and innocence in court cases (White 2010). II.II Physical Properties of Blood Blood constitutes about 7.7% of the body weight of a person (White 2010). This equates to 5-6 litres in males and 4-5 litres in females (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Viscosity is resistance to flow, which in fluids is compared to water which has a viscosity of 1. (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Blood viscosity usually ranges between 4.4 and 4.7 (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). Blood also has a higher specific gravity (density) than water, which is the weight of a substance relative to the weight of an equal volume of water (James and Nordby 2005). Blood is a fluid that circulates throughout the body by way of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries-known as the circulatory system (James and Nordby 2005). A primary function of blood is to transport oxygen, electrolytes, nourishment, hormones, vitamins and antibodies to tissues and to transport waste products from tissues to the excretory organs (James and Nordby 2005). Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) (in Bevel and Gardner 2002) say that when 4-6 litres of blood is present in the circulatory system, it is distributed as follows: Figure 1- Blood Distribution in the Circulatory System (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987) As a medium, blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45% cells (White 2010). A single drop or large volume of blood is held together by strong cohesive molecular forces that produce a surface tension (James and Nordby 2005). Surface tension is defined as the force that pulls the surface molecules of a liquid toward its interior, decreasing the surface area and causing the liquid to resist penetration (James and Nordby 2005). Bevel and Gardner (2002) state that plasma is the pale yellow fluid component of blood, which is broken down by volume into 91% water, 8% protein, 1% organic acids and 1% salts. Fibrinogen is one of the proteins, and this plays an important role in the clotting of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Blood serum is blood plasma minus its protein content (Jackson and Jackson 2008). The cellular component of blood consists of erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets) (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Red blood cells are heavier than plasma, which can be seen in bodies as lividity-which is where red cells settle to the lowest extremity of a body after death (Chmiel and Walitza 1980). http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301images/Red_White_Blood_cells.jpg Figure 2- A red blood cell, platelet and white blood cell (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010). There are roughly 4.8 to 5.4 million red blood cells per cubic millimetre of blood (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). They are bioconcaved discs in shape. The main role of the red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs via the arterial system and return carbon dioxide to the lungs for expiration via the venous system (James and Nordby 2005). Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which is a red pigment that gives blood its colour (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Haemoglobin is composed of globin, which is made up of four folded polypeptide chains, and four haem groups that join with iron (University of Eastern Kentucky 2010). http://www.ul.ie/~childsp/CinA/Issue64/Images/TOC36_2.gif Figure 3- Haemoglobin, containing four haem groups (University of Limerick, 2010). As the oxygen content increases in the blood, the bright red pigment of the haemoglobin also increases (Bevel and Gardner 2002). A red blood cell does not contain a nucleus. Red blood cells are expressed as a percentage of the packed (red) cell volume (PCV), also known as the haematocrit (Wonder 2001). Nelson and Rodak (1983) state that the haematocrit in humans is variable between individuals. Haematocrit Possible people with range of haematocrit 15-29% Chronic alcoholics or drug abusers, steroid abusers, women after traumatic child birth or illegal abortion, malnourished homeless, elderly. 30-48% Normal range for nontraumatic venipuncture (blood drawn in a clinic or hospital) samples. 49-75% Dehydrated individuals, people in shock, those living at high altitude, impending and active heart attack victims, newborn babies, people suffering from hypothermia, and people after extreme exercise. Table 1- Table to show the range of haematocrit ratios (Wonder 2001). White blood cells act to fight infections, destroy old cellular material and to destroy other invading microbes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). White blood cells can be further subdivided into phagocytes which are responsible for the capture and ingestion and foreign substances, and lymphocytes- which are responsible for the production of antibodies (Jackson and Jackson 2008). They make up less than 1% of the cellular component of blood, which equates to 5000 to 9000 white blood cells per cubic millimetre (Tortora and Anagnostakos 1987). The nuclei of white blood cells are the source of DNA in the blood (James and Nordby 2005). The other part of the cellular component of blood is the platelets. Like red blood cells, platelets also lack a nucleus (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Bevel and Gardner (2002) say that there are generally about 250,000 to 400,000 platelets per cubic millimetre of blood. Platelets are major components of the clotting mechanism of blood, and this is their primary function (James and Nordby 2005). Platelets have irregular shapes and are normally quite small, however when they encounter a damaged blood vessel they increase their size and their shapes changes (Bevel and Gardner 2002). They also become sticky and adhere to surrounding fibres in the vessel wall, which results in the accumulation of platelets called the platelet plug (Bevel and Gardner 2002). II.III Blood at a Crime Scene Blood is normally found at a crime scene due to a person sustaining an injury either by accident or on purpose. When a breach in the circulatory system occurs- due to an injury- the body reacts in different ways to control the loss of blood (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Initially the vascular spasm occurs, which is which the smooth vessels in the blood vessel wall contract to decrease the size of the vessel, which reduces the flow of blood through it (Bevel and Gardner 2002). Tortora and Anagnostakos (1987) say that this reduces blood loss for up to 30 minutes following injury, which gives time for the other blood loss mechanisms to engage. The platelet plug then follows which reduces, if not stops, the blood loss (Bevel and Gardner 2002). The final step is coagulation, or clotting. This is what is normally seen at crime scenes, where the clotted mass of fibrin fibres and blood cells is surrounded by blood serum (Bevel and Gardner 2002). There are three types of bleeding that can occur from damage to blood vessels (BUPA 2009): Arterial Bleeding Venous Bleeding Capillary Bleeding. Arterial bleeding usually is spurting bright red blood, due to the blood having come from the heart and lungs-so it is oxygen rich (Walter et al 2004). The pumping action of the heart adds rhythmic surges to move blood vessels away from the heart (Wonder 2001). It is the most serious type of bleeding, and the most difficult to control due to the blood in the arteries being under pressure from the heart (Walter et al 2004). Arterial wounds results in volume stains (Wonder 2001). Loss from the carotid artery or the aorta can rapidly lead to death (Wonder 2001). Examples of arterial injuries, and how they may occur are listed in Table 2. Artery Location Probable Occurrence Facial Mouth/lips Beating Temporal Head/temples Gunshot, Crushing Carotid Neck, front throat Stab wound, Gunshot, Decapitation Subclavian Under collar bone Gunshot, Crushing Aorta Chest Gunshot, Stab wound Brachial Arm/elbow Bone break Radial Wrist Slit wrists, Bone Break, Stab wound Femoral Groin Gunshot, Stab wound Tibial Ankle Bone Break, Crushing Deltoid Upper arm muscle Stab wound Table 2- Areas and actions that may involve arterial damage (Wonder 2001) External venous bleeding is normally as a result of wounding, as veins are closer to the skin than arteries (Walter et al 2004). It results in the steady flow of dark red (almost brown) blood, and is darker than arterial blood as it has released oxygen to the tissues in the body and is flowing back to the heart and lungs for more oxygen (Walter et al 2004). Capillary wounding is common in minor wounds as capillaries are very small vessels that are under very little pressure with a low volume of blood (Walter et al 2004). Capillary bleeding results in the oozing of either bright or dark red blood, which will normally stop on its own (Walter et al 2004). As well as the three main types of bleeding, there is a further category which is traumatic bleeding. There are different types of wounds which can cause traumatic bleeding, and these can be categorised as follows: Abrasion- also known as a graze, where an object brushes on the skin but does not break it. Hematoma- where blood vessels are damaged, causing blood to collect under the skin. Laceration- where a blunt impact to soft tissue causes a deep wound. Incision- where a precise cut is made into the skin. Puncture Wound- where an object penetrates the skin and deeper layers. Contusion- also known as a bruise, where a blunt trauma causes damage under the skin, but does not break it. Crushing injuries- where a great amount of force is applied over a period of time, causing initially internal bleeding. Ballistic trauma- where a projectile weapon has entered and exited the area of the body, causing a wound between the two. Scenes of Crime officers attend many types of crime scene where blood is present. These include: Burglary- When an offender breaks a glass window or door to gain entry to a premises, they risk cutting their hands/arms. This leads to blood being left on fragments of glass in the window and on the floor. Assault/Wounding- Open wounds are normally the result of an attack on a victim. Blood can be left at an assault scene on the weapon that was used in the assault, on the ground, on the offender and on the victim. If the victim is bleeding heavily then blood will be left whenever the victim comes into contact with another surface. Manslaughter/Attempted Murder/Murder- Blood left at these scenes is not only important for swabbing purposes, but the pattern in which the blood is left can determine the order of events at a major scene. Road Traffic Crash- Blood at this scene can be found in the victims car and, if involved, the offenders car. This is important as it can place people in their respective cars- allowing investigators to work out the positions of people at the time of the incident. The collection, packaging and preservation of blood evidence at a crime scene should not take place until the scenes of crime officer has documented the bloodstain patterns (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Whenever biological fluids are encountered at a crime scene, protective clothing, gloves and masks should be worn due to the biohazard nature of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). To recover dry blood, an area near the blood that is unstained should be swabbed using a sterile swab, as a control sample (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Then, the stain should be swabbed using a sterile swab that has been moistened using sterile water (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The remains of the stain should then be dry swabbed using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes immediately and stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). A batch control of both the water and swabs should always be made, and should be exhibited separately to the swabbed stain and background control (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Items that have areas of dried blood on them should be packaged in paper bags which are sealed securely and clearly marked as biohazard. Blood and bloodstained evidence should never be packaged in airtight containers (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). To recover wet blood, a control swab of the surrounding area of the stain should be taken using a sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The wet stain should then be swabbed using a dry, sterile swab (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). The swabs should be returned to their tubes immediately, and should be stored frozen as soon as possible (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). Again, a batch control of the swab should be exhibited separately (Derbyshire Constabulary 2008). If a removable item has an area of wet blood on it, then the entire object should be exhibited and left to dry in a drying room at the police station. Often at crime scenes, stains that are composed of unknown substances can easily be confused with blood. Identifying whether a substance is blood allows further analysis to confirm species, and the individual (Spalding 2006). II.IV Presumptive Tests for Blood James and Nordby (2005) say that a presumptive test is one which allows the scenes of crime officer to make a qualified conclusion that blood is present in the tested sample, when positive. They also say that when a test is negative, stains that need no further consideration are eliminated. Presumptive tests may be recognised as those that produce a visible colour reaction or those that result in the release of light (James and Nordby 2005). Both of these rely on the catalytic properties of blood to drive the reaction (James and Nordby 2005). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write this as a chemical reaction: AH2 + H2O2 Æ’Â   A + 2H2O Oxidisable chemical Hydrogen peroxide Haeme Oxidised (colourless) (peroxidise) James and Nordby (2005) state that catalytic tests involve the chemical oxidation of a chromogenic substance by an oxidising agent catalyzed by the presence of blood. They also say that the catalyst of the reaction is the peroxidise-like activity of the haeme group of haemoglobin. Cox (2004) describes the attributes that a good presumptive test for blood should be sensitive, specific, quick, simple and safe. In order for presumptive tests for blood to function properly, they must detect a component of blood (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). Most presumptive tests therefore act on the peroxidise activity of haemoglobin. This component is not found in the everyday environment, but other substances found in items such as fruit and vegetables perform a similar function (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). A very popular presumptive method is the phenolphthalein test, which is also known as the Kastle- Meyer test (Virkler and Lednev 2009). Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) say that the Kastle-Meyer test was introduced in 1901 by Kastle. Phenolphthalein will cause an alkaline solution to turn pink after it has been oxidised by peroxide when blood is present (Spalding 2006). The reagent consists of reduced phenolphthalein in alkaline solution, which is oxidised by peroxide in the presence of haemoglobin (James and Nordby 2005). The test result is normally immediate, and a positive result a minute or more after the test is performed is usually not considered as reliable (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1:100,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). James and Nordby (2005) say that Adler and Adler in 1904 investigated the reduced or colourless form (leuco) of the dye malachite green, which is also referred to as McPhails reagent. This test involves the Leuco base of malachite green (Lillie 1969). Leucomalachite Green oxidation is catalyzed by haeme to produce a green colour (James and Nordby 2005). The reaction is usually carried out in an acid medium with hydrogen peroxide as the oxidiser (James and Nordby 2005). It has a sensitivity of 1: 20,000 (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Bluestar is a luminol preparation developed by Professor Loic Blum in France that is extremely sensitive and stable and produces a very bright, long lasting chemiluminescence (James and Nordby 2005). The extreme sensitivity of Bluestar Forensic allows detections of bloodstains down to 1:10,000 dilutions (Bluestar Forensic 2004). It does not require total darkness to be visible, and works well on either fresh blood or old bloodstains (Bluestar Forensic 2004). Bluestar works by mixing the Bluestar Forensic solution with Bluestar Forensic tablets, which is then left to dissolve. This is sprayed onto the area of suspected blood. A positive result will cause a bluish luminescence (Bluestar Forensic 2004). The Hemastix test, created by Miles Laboratories in 1992, is particularly useful when solutions can be hazardous, or inconvenient (James and Nordby 2005). The test consists of a plastic strip with a reagent treated filter tab at one end (James and Nordby 2005). The tab contains TMB, diisopropylbenzene, dihydroperoxide, buffering materials and non reactants (James and Nordby 2005). A bloodstain is tested by moistening a swab with distilled water, sampling the stain, and touching the swab onto the reagent tab on the strip (James and Nordby 2005). The tab is normally yellow, and turns form orange to green or blue when positive. Quality control testing is necessary and should be completed with known blood samples on every new batch of test reagents to verify that the reagents are working as expected (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). II.V False Positives Sutton (1999) points out that a false positive is an apparent positive test result obtained with a substance other than blood. James and Nordby (2005) say that misleading results can be attributed to Chemical oxidants (often producing a reaction before the application of peroxide) Plant materials (vegetable peroxidises are thermolabile) Materials of animal origin (that contain traces of blood). Substances that produce false positives generally take detectably longer to react and, therefore, may be eliminated through observational interpretation (Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id 2007). False positives were initially noted only with copper salts (Glaister 1926). Tobe, Watson and Daà ©id (2007) state that saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulphate, 10% ferric sulphate and 10% nickel chloride are all known false positives. Bluestar False Positives (2008) say that Bluestar has false positives that include oil based paint, alkyd varnish, turnip, banana, leek, green bean, carrot, ginger, manganese sulphate, copper sulphate, iron sulphate and potassium permanganate. Lee, Palmbach and Miller (2001) write that many household cleaning products contain oxidising agents that can produce false positives. Many fruit and vegetables produce false positives including apples, horseradish and broccoli (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Bleach is a false positive that provides an (immediate and intense reaction) according to Gardner (2005). Hunt et al (1960) say that faeces often gave a false positive depending on the food that had been eaten previously. Ponce and Pascual (1999) state that lemon juice added to a bloodstain can cause a positive result due to its acidity. A false negative is when there is some interference with the oxidation-reduction reaction, normally in the presence of a strong reducing agent, which results in a delay of the oxidation reaction; thus resulting in a coloured formation (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). False negatives are less common but problematic as an actual blood sample may be overlooked or left at the scene (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Many of the false positive reactions can be identified during the presumptive testing procedure if any changes observed and the exact point in the reaction of these changes is recorded and compared to that of blood (Lee, Palmbach and Miller 2001). Chapter III. Experimental Methodology I will be investigating known substances previously reported by other authors that show a false positive and then analysing other substances similar to those already known to see if these also produce a false positive. III.I Project Design Each of the substances will need to be repeated to ensure a wide enough range of consistent results. Therefore, a grid will be drawn on a piece of Perspex measuring 1.5m2, and a piece of filter paper placed in each of the grid spaces, to allow the even distribution of substances and to allow the easy identification of false positives. Blood Known False Positives Unknowns 1 2 3 1 2 A New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood B New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood C New technique to detect metabolites from a single drop of blood Figure 4- A diagram to illustrate an example of the project layout. For each of the presumptive reagents tested, the filter paper in each grid space will be exposed to a substance to be tested. This will be allowed to dry for a minimum of 1 hour. Each substance will then be tested with a reagent. Each substance will be repeated three times to give a fair indication of performance. The time taken for a substance to register a positive result will be recorded. If a colour change occurs then the test will be classed as positive. If no colour change is noted within 5 minutes of the reagent being added, then the test will be classed as negative. III.II Sample Preparation The substances that I have chosen to analyse are known false positives as reported by other authors and then substances allied to known false positives. Known false positives to be tested: Horseradish. Tomato Sauce. Red Onion. Turnip. Lemon Juice. Bleach Solution (5%). Unknown substances to be tested: Brown Sauce. BBQ Sauce. Radish. Dark Chocolate. Orange Juice. Bleach Solution (less than 5%). III.III Choice of Presumptive Tests I have chosen to use the following presumptive reagents to test substances for false positives: Kastle-Meyer. Hemastix. McPhails. Bluestar. III.IV Control Tests I will test all of the presumptive tests on blank filter paper before proceeding to test with substances. This ensures that there is no reaction from the filter paper to the presumptive tests. I shall also test all of the presumptive tests with horse blood before proceeding to test with substances. This shows that the tests do recognise a sample of blood. I have chosen to use 2.5g of each substance as I feel this is an amount that is representative of a stain at a scene. Blood is reported to have been diluted to 1:10000 in previous tests, and as this dilution has proved the most successful, I have chosen to use this dilution. REARRANGE + FINISH